俄國文學講稿
我總是覺得當代中國文學大體上是無聊的,除了80年代前後有一些有趣的先鋒派,不過也是比西方晚了半個多世紀的一次嘗試,後來好像就沒什麼人寫出有趣的東西,甚至沒什麼人看了,經常說起來著名的白話文作品,結果一看都是民國時期的。很少聽人說起又有什麼值得稱讚的中國文學作品誕生。我不太清楚為什麼現在會是這樣,雖然也知道存在寫了卻發不出來的問題,但是不知道這到底會有什麼影響,直到我看了納博科夫(就是寫洛麗塔那個人)寫的《俄國文學講稿》(Lectures on Russian Literature)。這似乎是他在給康奈爾大學的學生講授俄國文學的時候所起草的教案,中間第一章叫做俄國作家、審查機制和讀者(Russian writers, censors, and readers),雖然寫的是俄國和後來的蘇聯,但是有些地方實在過於切實,以至於不難做些聯想。這裡只引用一些英文版的內容(附上自己寫的翻譯),因為聽說中文版可能會有刪節。
…the foreigner’s mind tends to regard [Russian literature] as something complete, something finished once and for all. This is mainly due to the bleakness of the typically regional literature produced during the last four decades under the Soviet rule. (referring to 1958)
(外國人喜歡將俄國文學作為一個完成了的事物來看待。這主要是因為進入蘇聯時期的這四十年(當時他是1958年寫的)所創作出的文學的蒼白所引致的。)
實際上,納博科夫指出19世紀的俄國文學是整個俄國文學史上唯一值得一提的時期,之前沒什麼俄國文學,之後的不值一提(除了20世紀開頭的那幾年)。而這些文學加起來也沒超過23000頁,跟英國、法國的文學完全沒法比。這裡我想到其實中國文學倒算是有很長的歷史,加起來頁數應該也很多,雖然流傳下來的大多是詩歌,小說可能也沒有那麼多,不過這明顯也並不影響後來的結果。
For an artist one consolation is that in a free country he is not actually forced to produce guidebooks. Now, from this limited point of view, nineteenth-century Russia was oddly enough a free country: books and writers might be banned and banished, censors might be rogues and fools, be-whiskered Tsars might stamp and storm; but that wonderful discovery of Soviet times, the method of making the entire literary corporation write what the state deems fit — this method was unknown in old Russia, although no doubt many a reactionary statesman hoped to find such a tool.
(對於藝術家而言在一個自由的國度里有一個值得慰藉的地方,即他是不用被強迫去創作指南書的。從這個有限的角度來說,19世紀的俄羅斯倒居然是個自由國度:書有可能被封殺,作家可能被流放,審查人員可能是流氓和傻子,流着絡腮鬍子的沙皇可能跺腳和狂怒;但到了蘇聯時期有了偉大的發現,即可以讓整個文學團體寫國家認為合適的內容——這個發現在舊俄國還不為人所知,當然肯定有反動的政治家是希望能找到這種工具的。)
這種對比其實在以前也是有的。清朝當然也是有文字獄的,不過到了晚清,反而有很多人出版各種書各種文章,他們有時候是在境外出版的,有時候是在租界里,可能現在都能算是「境外勢力」。不過總的來說,在過去是沒有政府去那麼大規模的組織作家寫什麼的。這裡納博科夫又對比了一下有些人的說法,即在所謂的自由國度里,其實作家也是有經濟壓力的,要寫出至少能糊口的東西,但他認為這個跟政治壓力不太一樣,不是度的問題,而是性質不同。首先經濟壓力不一定存在(可能是富二代,或者糊口的要求沒有那麼高)而且因為存在不同的出版商,有的可能喜歡你的作品,即便其他的不喜歡,所以不像只有一個政府決定出不出版的時候壓力是那麼的全面。
Nobody would exile me to the wilds of Alaska for having my happy atheist published after all by some shady experimental firm; and on the other hand, authors in America are never ordered by the government to produce magnificent novels about the joys of free enterprise and of morning prayers. In Russia before the Soviet rule there did exist restrictions, but no orders were given to artists. They were — those nineteenth-century writers, composers, and painters — quite certain that they lived in a country of oppression and slavery, but they had something that one can appreciate only now, namely, the immense advantage over their grandsons in modern Russia of not being compelled to say that there was no oppression and no slavery.
(不會有人因為我找了家不靠譜的實驗性質的出版社出版了個關於快樂的無神論者的書就把我流放到阿拉斯加的荒郊野外;另一方面,美國的作者也從來不會被政府要求寫出關於自由企業或者清晨禱告的宏大小說。在蘇聯之前的俄國,當然還是有創作方面的限制的,但是從來沒有過給藝術家的要求。他們——那些19世紀的作家、作曲家及畫家——都很確定自己住在充滿壓迫充滿奴役的國家裡,但是他們對於後來現代俄國的子孫們有着某種巨大的優勢,就是他們不會被強迫說現在就沒有壓迫沒有奴役了。)
… [Factors existed in the first half of 19th century] hampered the author to a considerable degree but also afforded him the keen pleasure of pin-pricking and deriding the government in a thousand subtle, delightfully subversive ways with which governmental stupidity was quite unable to cope… whatever defects the old administration in Russia had, it must be conceded that it possessed one outstanding virtue — a lack of brains.
(19世紀前期存在的各種限制(根據上下文,主要是來自於沙皇政府以及某些實用主義政客)確實在某種程度上阻礙了作者的創作,但是也給了他們用一千種巧妙的、愉快而顛覆性的方式針砭和嘲諷這些當權者,而政府因為過於愚蠢根本無法對付……不管俄國舊政權有什麼缺點,至少要承認他們有着一個特別的優點,就是沒腦子。)
Actually Lenin was in art a philistine, a bourgeois, and from the very start the Soviet government was laying the grounds for a primitive, regional, political, police-controlled, utterly conservative and conventional literature. The Soviet government, with admirable frankness very different from the sheepish, half-hearted, muddled attempts of the old administration, proclaimed that literature was a tool of the state; and for the last forty years this happy agreement between the poet and the policeman has been carried on most intelligently. Its result is the so-called Soviet literature, a literature conventionally bourgeois in its style and hopelessly monotonous in its meek interpretation of this or that governmental idea.
(列寧的藝術品位確實不佳,所以蘇聯政府從一開始就奠定了那種原始的、地域性的、政治的、警察控制的、非常保守且非常傳統的文學基礎。蘇聯政府跟過去那種窘迫的、不認真的、糊塗的舊政權不同,他們帶着值得敬佩的誠實,宣布文學就是國家的工具;所以過去這四十年詩人與警察之間的這份快樂的合同已經得到了非常透徹地執行。產生的結果就是所謂的蘇聯文學,一種在風格上傳統而平庸的文學,而在溫順地解釋這個或那個政府的理念時不可救藥的單調。)
It is interesting to ponder the fact that there is no real difference between what the Western Fascists wanted of literature and what the Bolsheviks want. Let me quote: “The personality of the artist should develop freely and without restraint. One thing, however, we demand: acknowledgement of our creed.” Thus spoke one of the big Nazis, Dr. Rosenberg, Minister of Culture in Hitler’s Germany. Another quotation: “Every artist has the right to create freely; but we, Communists, must guide him according to plan.” Thus spoke Lenin.
(有時看看法西斯對於文學的態度,再看看布爾什維克的,就會發現其實兩者沒什麼區別。法西斯說:「藝術家的人格應該自由且不受限制地發展。不過我們要求一件事:承認我們的信條。」這是希特拉的文化部部長羅森伯格博士說的。布爾什維克:「每個藝術家都應該自由地創作,但是我們共產主義者,必須按照計劃引導他們。」這是列寧說的。)
Communist officials called with a simper “an endless variety of themes” because every turn of the economic and political path implied a turn in literature: one day the lesson would be “factories”; the next, “farms”; then, “sabotage”; then, “the Red Army,” and so on (what variety!); with the Soviet novelist puffing and panting and dashing about from model hospital to model mine or dam, always in mortal fear that if he were not nimble enough he might praise a Soviet decree or a Soviet hero that would both be abolished on the publication day of his book.
(共產黨官員們帶着傻笑所宣稱的「沒有盡頭的多樣化主題」,是指的在經濟和政治上的每一次轉變,都意味着文學上的轉變:有一天主題是「工廠」;第二天是「農場」;再然後「暗中破壞」;然後「紅軍」,諸如此類(多麼多樣化!);蘇聯小說家喘着粗氣從模範醫院衝刺到模範礦井或大壩,總是深深恐懼着如果他不夠迅速,他可能會讚揚某個在出版之日已經被廢除的蘇聯政令或者蘇聯英雄。)
In the course of forty years of absolute domination the Soviet government has never once lost control of the arts. Every now and then the screw is eased for a moment, to see what will happen, and some mild concession toward individual self-expression is accorded; and foreign optimists acclaim the new book as a political protest, no matter how mediocre it is… But, alas, even if the Soviet writer does reach a level of literary art worthy of, say, an Upton Lewis — not to name any names — even so the dreary fact remains that the Soviet government, the most philistine organization on earth, cannot permit the individual quest, the creative courage, the new, the original, the difficult, the strange, to exist. And let us not be fooled by the natural extinction of elderly dictators. Not a jot changed in the philosophy of the state when Lenin was replaced by Stalin, and not a jot has changed now, with the rise of Krushchev, or Hrushchyov, or whatever his name is.
(在蘇聯政府過去的四十年里從來就沒有失去對藝術的控制。有時螺絲釘會稍微擰松一點,看看會發生什麼,然後給予一點輕柔的個人表現的退讓;某些境外的樂觀分子就會讚揚某本新書是政治上的抗議,不管那本書寫的多麼一般……但是哎呀,就算蘇聯作家在文藝上達到了厄普頓劉易斯(這名字瞎編的)——不是說要具體提到誰——的水平,沉悶的事實是,地球上藝術口味最平庸的蘇聯政府還是不會允許這一個人的探索、創作的勇氣、新穎的、原創的、困難的、奇怪的東西的存在。我們也不應該被年老的獨裁者的自然滅絕給愚弄。斯大林取代列寧的時候整個國家(對文學)的想法一點也沒有改變,所以現在不管是赫魯曉夫還是赫魯曉伏還是隨便什麼名字的人上台,這種想法也一點都不會改變。)
這段話讓人想起蘇聯時期有幾個還算是著名的作品,比如日瓦格醫生、古拉格群島,當然這兩本書都出版於本文寫成之後,可能不在納博科夫此文的殺傷範圍內……不過從上下文來看,納博科夫似乎對這種揭露現實式的作品嗤之以鼻。他認為好的作品應該形成自己的宇宙,而不是直接反映現實,可能是認為文學價值才是判斷好的作品的最高標準(否則僅僅是所謂的報告文學)。具體見下。
Since a definite limit is set to an author’s imagination and to free will, every proletarian novel must end happily, with the Soviets triumphing, and thus the author is faced with the dreadful task of having to weave an interesting plot when the outcome is in advance officially known to the reader.
(自從作家的想像力和自由意志設立了固定的邊界,所有的無產階級的小說都必須有一個圓滿的結局,其中蘇聯勝利了,所以作家的工作就變得很無聊,無非是把一個有趣的情節和一個讀者都提前知道的結局編織在一起。)
…since it is the Soviet state that is the real protagonist of every Soviet novel, we can have a few minor characters — fairly good Bolsheviks though they be — die a violent death provided the idea of the Perfect State triumphs in the end; in fact, some cunning authors have been known to arrange things in such a way that on the very last page the death of the Communist hero is the triumph of the happy Communist idea: I die so that the Soviet Union may live.
(既然蘇聯這個國家才是每部蘇聯小說真正的主角,我們也可以有一些配角——即便是還不錯的布爾什維克——以慘烈的方式死亡,只要最後還是完美的國家勝利就行了;其實有些作者巧妙地將故事的結局安排成了共產主義英雄雖然死了,但是一個令人欣慰的共產主義信念卻勝利了:我死了所以蘇聯可以繼續存在。)
Especially amusing in these circumstances is the romantic theme in Soviet novels. I have here two examples culled at random. First a passage from The Big Heart, a novel by Antonov, published serially in 1957:
Olga was silent.
“Ah,” cried Vladimir, “Why can’t you love me as I love you.”
“I love my country,” she said.
“So do I,” he exclaimed.
“And there is something I love even more strongly,” Olga continued, disengaging herself from the young man’s embrace.
“And that is?” he queried.
Olga let her limpid blue eyes rest on him, and answered quickly: “It is the Party.”
(特別有趣的是蘇聯文學中的情感描寫。我這裡有兩個隨便挑出來的例子(只放了一個)。首先是大心臟,由安東諾夫於1957年成系列地出版:
歐加沉默了。
「啊,」弗拉德米爾叫道,「你為什麼不能像我愛你一樣愛我。」
「我愛我的祖國,」她說。
「我也愛,」他叫道。
「但是我有一樣更愛的東西,」歐加繼續說,將自己從年輕人的懷抱中推開。
「那是?」他問道。
歐加用湛藍的眼睛看着他,快速地說:「我更愛黨。」)
In the nineteenth century genius not only survived, but flourished, because public opinion was stronger than any Tsar and because, on the other hand, the good reader refused to be controlled by the utilitarian ideas of progressive critics. In the present era when public opinion in Russia is completely crushed by the government, the good reader may perhaps still exist there, somewhere in Tomsk or Atomsk, but his voice is not heard, his diet is supervised, his mind divorced from the minds of his brothers abroad.
(19世紀的時候天才們不僅存活了下來,並且活得很好,這是因為公眾意見比沙皇更強大,也是因為好的讀者拒絕被進步批評家的功利主義意見所控制。在現在的俄國,公眾意見完全被政府所壓制,好的讀者可能還有,在托木斯克或者阿托木斯克,不過他的聲音沒人能聽到,他能攝入的東西被規管,他的思想和他海外的兄弟們的思想已經分離了。)
這裡讓我想起中國和俄國不太一樣的一個地方。俄國整個併入了蘇聯,即便有些人跑了出來,但數量也不成氣候。在中國則存在港澳台這樣的地方,還是多少保留了一些「海外的兄弟」。他們中間雖然沒有出來傳世之作(也許有人會有不同看法),但還是出來了很多境內沒有創作出來的有趣作品(或者沒有發掘出來的),比如金庸、比如張愛玲、港台本地也還有一些類似朱天心朱天文董啟章也斯陳冠中等寫出有趣作品(很多大概在境內都無法出版,或者因為境內讀者的口味沒有出版)的作家。當然以後會變成怎樣,現在也無法預測。
His brothers — that is the point: for just as the universal family of gifted writers transcends national barriers, so is the gifted reader a universal figure, not subject to spatial or temporal laws. It is he — the good, the excellent reader — who has saved the artist again and again from being destroyed by emperors, policemen, postmasters, and prigs.
(他的兄弟們,也就是說:就像好的天才型作家能夠超越國界而存在,好的讀者也是如此,不受時間或空間的限制。好的優秀的讀者,能夠一而再再而三地拯救藝術家,不被沙皇、警察、郵政局長和自命清高的傢伙毀滅。)
很遺憾的是,雖然好的讀者可以超越國界,但是不太可能超出他們所能閱讀的語言。而讓一個人用非母語寫作實在太難,雖然現在確實有哈金和石黑一雄這種能用非母語寫作的人(後者可能應該算英語母語),而除非作品已經出名到一個境界,會被翻譯成不同語言出版,否則也很難接觸到以其他語言閱讀的讀者。即便可以接觸到,也存在題材不受歡迎的可能,比如張愛玲晚年在美國繼續用英文創作與之前作品類似的小說,但是在美國沒有形成什麼影響。很遺憾的是,即便國界不構成障礙,語言和題材也是會形成障礙的,這也是即便進入全球化時代沒有辦法孕育出什麼好的中國小說的可能。
Let me define this admirable reader. He does not belong to any specific nation or class. No director of conscience and no book club can manage his soul. His approach to a work of fiction is not governed by those juvenile emotions that make the mediocre reader identify himself with this or that character and “skip descriptions.”… The admirable reader does not seek information about Russia in a Russian novel, for he knows that the Russia of Tolstoy or Chekhov is not the average Russia of history but a specific world imagined and created by individual genius.
(讓我來定義這可敬的讀者。他可能不屬於任何特定的國家或階級。沒有良心的監督或者圖書俱樂部可以管理他的靈魂。他對虛構作品的態度不像那些一般的讀者一樣,會被青春期的情感所驅動,不會為書中某個角色產生共情並且「跳過描述的部分」……可敬的讀者不會從俄國小說中獲取有關俄國的信息,因為他知道托爾斯泰或者契科夫的俄國不是歷史上一般的俄國,而是這些天才所單獨創設的想像的國度。)
The Russian reader in old cultured Russia was certainly proud of Pushkin and of Gogol, but he was just as proud of Shakespeare or Dante, of Baudelaire or of Edgar Allan Poe, of Flaubert or of Houmer, and this was the Russian reader’s strength.
(在過去有文化的俄國,俄國讀者們會為普希金或者果戈里感到驕傲,就像他們也會為莎士比亞或者但丁、波德萊爾或者愛倫坡、福樓拜或者荷馬感到驕傲一樣,這是俄國讀者的強勢所在。)
也就是說,俄國文學能在19世紀發揚光大,離不開俄國的讀者。如果書出版不了,讀者看不到,所謂的天才作家也永遠沒有出頭之日。他們的作品就算寫了可能只能在柜子里鎖起來被時間氧化掉,可能因為知道沒人能看到從一開始就沒寫。好的讀者的培養是需要環境和時間的,一旦失去了這些讀者,也就出不來好的作家和好的作品了。這也多少解釋了我對現在的中國文學的疑惑。當然現在還是有很多好書可以看的,但大部分都是國外的,他們大概已經在國外的好的讀者那裡得到了發掘,所以才有機會流入國內,反之就很難行得通了。